Forests & Tree Species in the Northeastern United States, 1870–1900, with a Focus on New York State (Pre-Chainsaw Era)

I. Introduction & Historical Setting

Between the 1870s and 1900, New York State’s forests stood at a turning point. Earlier centuries of agricultural clearing and charcoal ironmaking had converted vast lowland and valley forests to farms and cutover lands, while the northern mountains still held commercial softwoods and mixed hardwoods. The period saw the rise of steam power at mills, the spread of rail lines into timber country, the emergence of a pulp-and-paper industry, and—crucially—the first statewide conservation measures. All of this unfolded before the widespread adoption of chain saws; felling and bucking were done by axe and hand saw, and moving logs depended on horses, oxen, water, gravity, and winter snow.

II. Major Forest Regions of New York (c. 1870–1900)

• Adirondack Mountains: Extensive softwood stands of red spruce, eastern hemlock, and white pine, with northern hardwoods (sugar maple, beech, yellow birch). Source for lumber, tanning bark, railroad ties, telegraph poles, and—by the 1880s–90s—pulpwood (especially spruce).
• Catskills: Known for hemlock (bark for the leather-tanning industry) and mixed hardwoods. Many hillsides were logged primarily for bark—the logs themselves were sometimes underutilized early on.
• Southern Tier & Finger Lakes: High-quality hardwoods (maple, beech, birch, cherry, oak) used for furniture, flooring, barrel staves, carriage parts, and finish lumber.
• Hudson & Mohawk Valleys, Lake Plains: Much land previously cleared for agriculture; woodlots provided fuelwood, fencing, tool handles, fruit-tree stakes, and local construction timber. Re-growth (“second-growth”) stands became increasingly common.

III. Species Availability & Typical Uses

The table below summarizes widely available species and characteristic uses in New York during this period. Availability varied locally with elevation, soils, prior clearing, and proximity to mills, rivers, and railheads.

IV. Extraction Without Chainsaws: Tools, Labor & Logistics

1) Tools & Techniques

• Axes & Hatchets: Felling axes remained fundamental through the 19th century; careful undercut (face cut) and back cut technique controlled lay.
• Crosscut Saws (“Misery Whips”): Two-man crosscut saws became common for felling and bucking by the late 19th century, supplementing and often replacing axe-only felling on merchantable timber.
• Wedges & Mauls: For directing the fall and preventing saw binding.
• Peaveys & Cant Hooks: Levering, rolling, and positioning logs, especially on landings and river drives.
• Broad Axe, Adze, Drawknife: Hewing timbers, squaring cants, and dressing surfaces on site.
• Sleds, Stone Boats & Skid Roads: Winter logging relied on iced skid roads and horse/ox teams to move heavy logs efficiently.

2) Moving the Timber

• Winter Advantage: Frozen ground minimized rutting; snow and ice reduced friction for sled trains.
• River Drives & Splash Dams: Logs floated during spring freshets on Adirondack and Catskill streams; crewmen (“drivers”) broke up jams with pike poles and dynamite later in the era.
• Corduroy & Tote Roads: Temporary roads of small logs enabled teams to reach cuttings; “tote teams” supplied remote camps.
• Railheads & Canals: Regional railroads and the Erie Canal system connected mills to markets, shortening stockpiles and expanding reach.

3) Camps & Labor Organization

• Camp Size: Typical logging camps numbered a few dozen men (cook, teamsters, fellers, swampers, scalers, drivers), scaling up for large bark-peeling or river-drive operations.
• Seasonality: Felling often concentrated in winter; peeling hemlock bark happened in spring/early summer when the bark “slipped.”
• Units of Trade: Board feet for sawlogs; cords for fuelwood; bolts (short lengths, often 4 ft) for pulpwood; ties counted per piece for railroads.

V. Sawmills & Wood Industries

• Steam-Powered Sawmills: Portable and fixed steam engines drove circular saws; band saws gained ground in the 1880s–90s, improving yield on large logs.
• Pulp & Paper: Groundwood and later chemical pulping (particularly of spruce) created new markets, reshaping Adirondack logging toward smaller-diameter softwoods.
• Tanneries: Hemlock bark was stripped, corded, and hauled to local tanneries; the industry boomed then declined as bark supplies dwindled and chemical tanning advanced.
• Railroads & Telegraph: Demand surged for ties and poles; oaks, chestnut, and cedar (where available) were favored for durability.
• Construction Evolution: Timber framing persisted in barns and bridges, while balloon/platform framing (with abundant cut nails and then wire nails) accelerated demand for dimensional softwood lumber and standardized shingles/clapboards.

VI. Availability Constraints & Market Dynamics

• Access & Distance to Mill: Species “availability” to builders depended on haul distance to a rail siding or navigable waterway; abundant local hardwoods might be bypassed if softwood framing could be rafted cheaply.
• Second-Growth vs. Old-Growth: Outside remote tracts, many forests were second-growth following earlier clearing, shifting species proportions (e.g., more beech and maple in abandoned pastures).
• Selective Cutting: High-grading (taking the best and leaving the rest) altered stand composition over time, changing the mix available to later users.
• Price Signals: Pulp mills increased the value of small spruce/fir; tanneries drove demand for hemlock bark; railroad expansion bid up suitable oak and chestnut for ties and bridges.

VII. Environmental Effects & the Rise of Conservation

By the 1880s, observers warned of overcutting, erosion, and fires in the mountains. Surveyor Verplanck Colvin’s Adirondack work and allied advocacy helped spur state action. New York created the Forest Preserve in 1885, and in 1894 the state constitution adopted the “forever wild” clause protecting Forest Preserve lands from sale or logging. These measures did not end private logging but created a protected core that shaped the 20th-century forest recovery.

VIII. Practical Availability to Builders (1870–1900)

• Framing & Sheathing: Softwoods—white pine, spruce, hemlock—dominated due to weight, workability, and cost.
• Exterior Durability: Chestnut and white oak favored for sills, posts, and ground-contact parts; cedar (locally) for shingles and posts.
• Interior Finish: Pine for trim and casing; cherry, maple, and birch for furniture, stair parts, and high-end finishes.
• Farm & Outbuildings: Hemlock and mixed hardwoods common, with chestnut rails and posts prized for rot resistance.
• Fuel: Hardwood cords (beech, maple, birch, hickory) heated homes, shops, and boilers; slabwood from mills was an economical urban fuel.

IX. Methods on the Ground: A Typical Logging Year

1. Autumn: Crews open tote roads, repair camps, and stage supplies. Selected trees are marked.
2. Winter: Felling with axe and crosscut; limbing and bucking; logs skidded by team to landings; iced skid roads enable heavy loads by sled.
3. Early Spring: River drives move logs to mills; crews tackle logjams with peaveys and dynamite (late century).
4. Late Spring/Summer: Hemlock bark peeling when sap rises; sawmills run with waterpower or steam; grading, stacking, and air-drying follow.

X. Glossary (Selected)

• Bolt: Short log section (often 4 ft) used for shingles or pulp.
• Board Foot: A volume measure equal to a board 1" × 12" × 12".
• Cant: A log hewn or sawn on one or more sides.
• Pole Road / Skid Road: Temporary log-surfaced track for sleds or wagons.
• Scaler: Worker who measures and grades logs.

XI. Conclusions

In late-19th-century New York, species availability and use were shaped less by chains or power tools—still decades away in the woods—than by geography, transportation, and industry. Softwoods (pine, spruce, hemlock) drove framing, pulp, and tanning economies, while the state’s hardwood wealth supported furniture, flooring, and the everyday work of a growing nation. Labor was seasonal and skilled, mills were increasingly steam-driven, and markets were transformed by rails and the pulp industry. Simultaneously, the depletion of easily reached stands and the environmental cost of unregulated cutting prompted a uniquely strong conservation response that still defines New York’s forests today.

Many of the trees harvested in New York State between the 1870s and 1900 were the product of centuries of growth. Old-growth white pine and spruce in the Adirondacks often stood 150 to 250 years old, with some giants exceeding three centuries. Northern hardwoods such as sugar maple and yellow birch matured more slowly, commonly reaching 100–150 years before attaining merchantable size, while American chestnut and oak could likewise grow for several centuries under favorable conditions. These slow-growing trees developed tight growth rings, producing dense, strong, and highly durable lumber that differed significantly from the faster-grown, plantation-raised timber of later eras. The wood’s fine grain and structural integrity made it especially desirable for construction, joinery, and finish work, and is one reason that late-19th-century buildings still exhibit remarkable longevity where such timber was used. The removal of these old-growth stands, however, meant that by the early 20th century, builders increasingly relied on younger, second-growth trees with wider rings and different working properties.